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Korbelak and R Duva16 consider gold the most readily solderable material, but Sn-Au intermetallics are of even more serious concern than those of Au-Pb The former is a characteristically brittle intermetallic that has been widely linked to solder-joint failure Too much gold in a tin-lead solder imparts a dull, grainy look to the resultant joint the only possible visual clue, although there are other conditions that can result in a similar appearance There are marked differences in solder-joint integrity when it is loaded with Au The embrittlement causes a reduction in the joint strength and fatigue life Although there is much controversy over how much gold is too much, there is universal agreement that Au can be detrimental to the final assembly if its fractional weight-percent is not strictly controlled The controversy is in part due to the type of product being soldered, its intended use, and its life cycle.

If an electronic assembly is subjected routinely to high operating temperatures and/or frequent on-off power cycling, embrittled solder-joint fatigue problems will be evident Although there is unanimous agreement that gold can be responsible for solder joint embrittlement and reduced solder-joint service lifetime, there is wide disagreement on the exact amount of gold permissible Reported values generally fall between 2 wt percent and 10 wt percent, with most experts agreeing that less than 2 wt percent is a safe value17, 18 Ebneter19 determined that Au as a thin, protective coating 0762 mm to 584 mm (30 min to 230 min) does not pose an embrittlement problem He also determined that the Au thickness required was a function of the plated grain size and porosity Further, grain size is dependent on the type of plating bath (cyanide or acid) used.

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Hedrig20 also concluded that >5 percent Au in Sn-40Pb solder was problematic Foster21 reported a small net increase in solder-joint strength with a 25 percent Au addition to the same alloy, but when the addition was as high as 10 percent, there was a marked degradation in solder-joint strength C J Thwaites22 reported that 4 percent gold in a Sn-Pb solder joint is the threshold value above which there is a marked embrittlement and reduction in fatigue resistance There are three important Au-Sn intermetallics: AuSn, AuSn2, and AuSn4 Eutectic points are at about 85 wt percent Sn (215 C) and 20 percent Sn (280 C) Gold can also form a ternary compound when joined with Sn-Pb solder, exhibiting a eutectic at about 175 C23 This can radically alter reflow characteristics and solder-joint performance.

where h is the actual clearance and hd is the design clearance However, the value for the thrust force and the resistance ratio to be applied in the preceding equation remains as the values for the design condition Previously, h = hd The comparison between the values is made in Table 610 From Table 610, it is proven that the maximum stiffness is at the design condition, where the design clearance and the actual clearance are equal It can also be seen that the total pumping power increases with the increase in the clearance or the film thickness This can also be observed for the Table 610 Comparison of the design parameters due to different clearance values

Au, like Pb, is poorly soluble in Sn, which means that it dissolves in hot Sn, Pb, or Sn-Pb solder and precipitates out of solution during the liquid-to-solid phase change of the solder When it does, it forms brittle, platelike crystals that appear needle-like in cross-section24.

When an intermetallic forms a distinct interfacial layer or otherwise high localized concentration, it is a rigid structural element, prone to cracking and brittle fracture failure on flexing Therefore, even though the solder joint is composed of a ductile Sn-Pb composition, its overall strength and endurance is dominated by the brittle intermetallic composition and its thickness and structure within the solder joint As component lead pitch decreases, so does the amount of solder-per-joint contribution from the solder land metallurgy Au concentration becomes increasingly difficult to control because its plated thickness cannot be easily regulated to accommodate the reduced surface area and lower solder volumes that accompany finer-pitch component requirementsAfter all, Au deposit thickness is dependent on its deposition grain size and plated porosity The porosity must be overcome in order for the Au to serve its function in preventing oxidation of the underlying nickel on a Ni-plated substrate.

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